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Nearmiss effect on slot machines: Reviews and experimental analysis after half a century

In a chance game, it is said that a near miss will occur if the losing feedback is close to winning. For example, it is considered a nea r-miss that the "cherry cherry lemon" appears in a slot machine. 66 years ago, B. F. Skinner proposed for the first time that the nea r-miss could enhance the continuous play of the slot machine, and despite some inconsistencies in the experimental literature. The belief in "effect" remains strong. In this paper, this literature will be reviewed and an experimental evaluation of the hiyari hat effect on the frequency of gambling reactions. Experiment 1 evaluated the estimated effect of near-miss compared to the contrasting "Fur Miss" reel pattern using strict resistance and extinct procedure using pigeons. Experiment 2 has expanded the procedure of Experiment 1 to human participants. Both experiments did not obtain the results of supporting the Nearmiss effect hypothesis. Experiment 3 evaluated the validity of the resistance of the reel stimulus in the case of reel stimulation and the validity of the extinction paradigm. A clear conditional reaction was obtained from the reel, but subsequent extinct experiments revealed that this stimulation did not work on the operant reaction frequency.

The tacit evaluation of the hiyari hat depends on the context of the result

Article 2017 July 01,

Nearmiss in video games: experimental research

Paper Open Access March 29, 2019

Continuous stimulation category identification: All S Δ are not equal

Paper September 30, 2016

Avoid mistakes that are common in manuscripts

At the beginning

It is said that a nea r-miss (also known as near hits or nearwin) occurs when the elements of games and tasks are "suggested" to players that "it was about to achieve a little more advantageous results." Witts et al. (2015) show a good example. Think of a beginner player who repeats the free throw of basketball. Each time you throw it, the variety of throwing that the ball approaches the hoop is probably increased (that is, selected). This is an example of a nea r-miss that has a clear enhancement function in the player's free throat behavior. Nearmiss effect on slot machines: Reviews and experimental analysis after half a century

Similar content that other people are looking at

The tacit evaluation of the hiyari hat depends on the context of the result

Article 2017 July 01,

Nearmiss in video games: experimental research

Paper Open Access March 29, 2019

Continuous stimulation category identification: All S Δ are not equal

Paper September 30, 2016

Avoid mistakes that are common in manuscripts

At the beginning

It is said that a nea r-miss (also known as near hits or nearwin) occurs when the elements of games and tasks are "suggested" to players that "it was about to achieve a little more advantageous results." Witts et al. (2015) show a good example. Think of a beginner player who repeats the free throw of basketball. Each time you throw it, the variety of throwing that the ball approaches the hoop is probably increased (that is, selected). This is an example of a nea r-miss that has a clear enhancement function in the player's free throat behavior. Nearmiss effect on slot machines: Reviews and experimental analysis after half a century

In a chance game, it is said that a near miss will occur if the losing feedback is close to winning. For example, it is considered a nea r-miss that the "cherry cherry lemon" appears in a slot machine. 66 years ago, B. F. Skinner proposed for the first time that the nea r-miss could enhance the continuous play of the slot machine, and despite some inconsistencies in the experimental literature. The belief in "effect" remains strong. In this paper, this literature will be reviewed and an experimental evaluation of the hiyari hat effect on the frequency of gambling reactions. Experiment 1 evaluated the estimated effect of near-miss compared to the contrasting "Fur Miss" reel pattern using strict resistance and extinct procedure using pigeons. Experiment 2 has expanded the procedure of Experiment 1 to human participants. Both experiments did not obtain the results of supporting the Nearmiss effect hypothesis. Experiment 3 evaluated the validity of the resistance of the reel stimulus in the case of reel stimulation and the validity of the extinction paradigm. A clear conditional reaction was obtained from the reel, but subsequent extinct experiments revealed that this stimulation did not work on the operant reaction frequency.

Similar content that other people are looking at

The tacit evaluation of the hiyari hat depends on the context of the result

Article 2017 July 01,

Nearmiss in video games: experimental research

Paper Open Access March 29, 2019

Continuous stimulation category identification: All S Δ are not equal

Paper September 30, 2016

Avoid mistakes that are common in manuscripts

At the beginning

Nearmiss occurs in accidental games, but what is decisively different is that the result is random in accidental games. In a standard slot machine, if the election is shown in Cherry Cherry Cherry, "Cherry Cherry Lemon" is considered a near miss. The latest slot machines are equipped with a pseud o-random number generator (RNG), which continuously circulates about 1000 different values per second. For each bet, the machine selects the current position of the cycle and outputs the correlated reel to the display (Schüll 2012). Unlike basketball free throw, the probability of winning with a slot machine does not improve how much you practice. Furthermore, even if you make a nea r-miss, you will not be more useful for the next victory than other types of mistakes. If the nea r-miss in a chance game is irrelevant to the winning or losing and cannot be used to increase the winning rate, why is Niamis considered a "near" mistake?

The answer seems to be that the nea r-miss is visually winning "almost". For example, cherry cherry lemon is more like the victory shown in three cherry than the cherry lemon lemon. In the case of basketball free throw, the visual aspect of the situation gives players a useful feedback. However, slot machines' nea r-miss feedback is not practical to improve performance. One possibility is that the visual aspect of the nea r-miss uses the advanced learning process (especially the condition enhancement) to detect accidental (or not random) results. This manuscript first reviews existing documents on the effects of knear missing gambling sustainability, and then in both humans and pigeons, to verify the possibility of strengthening the nea r-miss stimulus for gambling sustainability. Introducing the results of the experiment designed.

Conditional enhancement Nearmiss occurs in accidental games, but the decisive difference is that the result is random in the accident. In a standard slot machine, if the election is shown in Cherry Cherry Cherry, "Cherry Cherry Lemon" is considered a near miss. The latest slot machines are equipped with a pseud o-random number generator (RNG), which continuously circulates about 1000 different values per second. For each bet, the machine selects the current position of the cycle and outputs the correlated reel to the display (Schüll 2012). Unlike basketball free throw, the probability of winning with a slot machine does not improve how much you practice. Furthermore, even if you make a nea r-miss, you will not be more useful for the next victory than other types of mistakes. If the nea r-miss in a chance game is irrelevant to the winning or losing and cannot be used to increase the winning rate, why is Niamis considered a "near" mistake?

The answer seems to be that the nea r-miss is visually winning "almost". For example, cherry cherry lemon is more like the victory shown in three cherry than the cherry lemon lemon. In the case of basketball free throw, the visual aspect of the situation gives players a useful feedback. However, slot machines' nea r-miss feedback is not practical to improve performance. One possibility is that the visual aspect of the nea r-miss uses the advanced learning process (especially the condition enhancement) to detect accidental (or not random) results. This manuscript first reviews existing documents on the effects of knear missing gambling sustainability, and then in both humans and pigeons, to verify the possibility of strengthening the nea r-miss stimulus for gambling sustainability. Introducing the results of the experiment designed.

Conditional reinforced near mistakes occur in accidental games, but what is decisively different is that the results are random in accounting games. In a standard slot machine, if the election is shown in Cherry Cherry Cherry, "Cherry Cherry Lemon" is considered a near miss. The latest slot machines are equipped with a pseud o-random number generator (RNG), which continuously circulates about 1000 different values per second. For each bet, the machine selects the current position of the cycle and outputs the correlated reel to the display (Schüll 2012). Unlike basketball free throw, the probability of winning with a slot machine does not improve how much you practice. Furthermore, even if you make a nea r-miss, you will not be more useful for the next victory than other types of mistakes. If the nea r-miss in a chance game is irrelevant to the winning or losing and cannot be used to increase the winning rate, why is Niamis considered a "near" mistake?

The answer seems to be that the nea r-miss is visually winning "almost". For example, cherry cherry lemon is more like the victory shown in three cherry than the cherry lemon lemon. In the case of basketball free throw, the visual aspect of the situation gives players a useful feedback. However, slot machines' nea r-miss feedback is not practical to improve performance. One possibility is that the visual aspect of the nea r-miss uses the advanced learning process (especially the condition enhancement) to detect accidental (or not random) results. This manuscript first reviews existing documents on the effects of knear missing gambling sustainability, and then in both humans and pigeons, to verify the possibility of strengthening the nea r-miss stimulus for gambling sustainability. Introducing the results of the experiment designed.

Conditional enhancement

Conditions are thought to play an important role in gambling behavior. For example, the audience stimulation that correlates with the victory in the slot machine may acquire the condition enhancement characteristics that promotes further play (Cherkasova et al.) In 1953, B. F. Skinner is probably the first scientific scientific for nearby. In the explanation, we discuss the enhancement of conditions. The explanation of Skinner (1953) focuses on enhancement of conditions as one of the plausible methods used by the casino to exploit from regular customers, and the fact that the nea r-miss effects (nea r-miss events increase the frequency of gambling. It is still quoted as an explanation of the belief that it will be. More officially, the hiyari hat effect is defined as a reinforcement function that accidentally plays the frequency of games in a coincidence. The initial hypothesis of Skinner was based on two important factors: (1) The condition enhancement is based on pairing (that is, continuity), (2) Near mistakes actually increase the frequency of bed reactions. thing. When Skinner suggested this, the available evidence was almost supported by the pairing of the conditional enhancement, and the effect of strengthening the knear miss was reasonable as a preliminary prediction. However, as a subsequent study, the explanation of pairing is insufficient because it ignores the nuances that affect and characterize this kind of learning (Lattal 2013; Rescorla 1988), and pairing is conditional enhanced effect. It became clear that it was not enough to create. Enhancement is thought to play an important role in gambling behavior. For example, the audience stimulation that correlates with the victory in the slot machine may acquire the condition enhancement characteristics that promotes further play (Cherkasova et al.) In 1953, B. F. Skinner is probably the first scientific scientific for nearby. In the explanation, we discuss the enhancement of conditions. The explanation of Skinner (1953) focuses on enhancement of conditions as one of the plausible methods used by the casino to exploit from regular customers, and the fact that the nea r-miss effects (nea r-miss events increase the frequency of gambling. It is still quoted as an explanation of the belief that it will be. More officially, the hiyari hat effect is defined as a reinforcement function that accidentally plays the frequency of games in a coincidence. The initial hypothesis of Skinner was based on two important factors: (1) The condition enhancement is based on pairing (that is, continuity), (2) Near mistakes actually increase the frequency of bed reactions. thing. When Skinner suggested this, the available evidence was almost supported by the pairing of the conditional enhancement, and the effect of strengthening the knear miss was reasonable as a preliminary prediction. However, as a subsequent study, the explanation of pairing is insufficient because it ignores the nuances that affect and characterize this kind of learning (Lattal 2013; Rescorla 1988), and pairing is conditional enhanced effect. It became clear that it was not enough to create. Conditions are thought to play an important role in gambling behavior. For example, the audience stimulation that correlates with the victory in the slot machine may acquire the condition enhancement characteristics that promotes further play (Cherkasova et al.) In 1953, B. F. Skinner is probably the first scientific scientific for nearby. In the explanation, we discuss the enhancement of conditions. The explanation of Skinner (1953) focuses on enhancement of conditions as one of the plausible methods used by the casino to exploit from regular customers, and the fact that the nea r-miss effects (nea r-miss events increase the frequency of gambling. It is still quoted as an explanation of the belief that it will be. More officially, the hiyari hat effect is defined as a reinforcement function that accidentally plays the frequency of games in a coincidence. The initial hypothesis of Skinner was based on two important factors: (1) The condition enhancement is based on pairing (that is, continuity), (2) Near mistakes actually increase the frequency of bed reactions. thing. When Skinner suggested this, the available evidence was almost supported by the pairing of the conditional enhancement, and the effect of strengthening the knear miss was reasonable as a preliminary prediction. However, as a subsequent study, the explanation of pairing is insufficient because it ignores the nuances that affect and characterize this kind of learning (Lattal 2013; Rescorla 1988), and pairing is conditional enhanced effect. It became clear that it was not enough to create.<\raise0.5ex\hbox<$\scriptstyle 1$>Experimental tests of conditioned reinforcement often use chained schedules, in which two or more reinforcement schedules signaled by a unique exteroceptive stimulus are presented in succession. The conditioned reinforcing effect of the stimuli in the chain can then be assessed by introducing extinction and comparing responses in the presence and absence of the putative conditioned reinforcer. As Kelleher and Gollub (1962) pointed out, extinction procedures avoid the confounding effects of unconditioned reinforcers in testing, but can inadvertently introduce other problems. For example, extinction changes the context, and stimuli may act differently (i. e., be "seen" differently by the organism) than they did in training. Kelleher and Gollub also point out that extinction often has only small effects - perhaps because the conditioned reinforcer is being tested and extinct at the same time. Finally, a problem specific to near misses is that in traditional chaining procedures that are successful in conditioned reinforcement, there is a logical predictability (i. e., contingency) between the supposed conditioned reinforcer and the subsequent unconditioned reinforcer. However, classical slot machines provide random outcomes, with no contingency between the occurrence of a near-miss stimulus and the subsequent occurrence of a winning outcome. It is therefore not clear why near-miss stimuli must be assumed to have a conditioned reinforcing effect. Experimental tests of conditioned reinforcement often use chain schedules, in which two or more reinforcement schedules signaled by unique exteroceptive stimuli are presented in succession. The conditioned reinforcing effect of the stimuli in the chain can then be assessed by introducing extinction and comparing responses in the presence and absence of the putative conditioned reinforcer. As Kelleher and Gollub (1962) pointed out, extinction procedures avoid the confounding effects of unconditioned reinforcers in testing, but can inadvertently introduce other problems. For example, extinction changes the context, and stimuli may act differently (i. e., be "seen" differently by the organism) than they did in training. Kelleher and Gollub also point out that extinction often produces only small effects - perhaps because the conditioned reinforcer is simultaneously tested and extinct. Finally, a problem specific to near-misses is that in traditional chaining procedures that are successful in conditioned reinforcement, there is a logical predictability (i. e., contingency) between the supposed conditioned reinforcer and the subsequent unconditioned reinforcer. However, classic slot machines provide random outcomes, with no contingency between the occurrence of the near-miss stimulus and the subsequent occurrence of a winning outcome. Thus, it is not clear why near-miss stimuli should be assumed to have a conditioned reinforcing effect. Experimental tests of conditioned reinforcement often use chaining schedules, in which two or more reinforcement schedules signaled by unique exteroceptive stimuli are presented in succession. The conditioned reinforcing effect of the stimuli in the chain can then be assessed by introducing extinction and comparing responses in the presence and absence of the putative conditioned reinforcer. As Kelleher and Gollub (1962) pointed out, although extinction procedures avoid the confounding effects of unconditioned reinforcers in testing, they can inadvertently introduce other problems. For example, extinction changes the context, potentially causing stimuli to work differently (i. e., be "seen" differently by the organism) than they did in training. Kelleher and Gollub also note that extinction often has only small effects - perhaps because the conditioned reinforcer is simultaneously tested and extinguished. Finally, a problem specific to near misses is that in traditional chaining procedures that result in successful conditioned reinforcement, there is a logical predictability (i. e., contingency) between the assumed conditioned reinforcer and the subsequent unconditioned reinforcer. However, classical slot machines offer random outcomes with no contingency between the occurrence of the near-miss stimulus and the subsequent occurrence of a winning outcome. Thus, it is not clear why near-miss stimuli should be assumed to have a conditioned reinforcing effect.

Furthermore, near-miss can be globally (that is, cherry-cherry-lemon can be regarded as a single stimulus), or locally (that is, each element is an individual stimulus). From a global perspective, the conditional enhancement effect of the stimulus associated with the victory may be more common in the near mistakes than other, different mistakes (Belisle and Dixon 2016; Daly et al.) Stimulation. Evidence that matches the explanation of generalization is obtained by the knowledge that the reel result, which is visually similar by victory, causes a more similar time in the event of a victory. However, it is known that stimuli that is close to victory does not increase the hiding time, but may be shorter (Dixon et al.) The most problematic is that these research focus only on the invasion, overall. It is not reported about the reaction rate. The reinforced agent has a higher reaction rate and has a more cumulative reaction over time intervals (Ferster and Skinner 1957). Therefore, the evidence that the strengthening function of victory stimuli is generalized for the near miss is also necessary to prove that near miss it increases the total number of bets or bet rates. Nearmiss events may function as conditional enhancement factors by local effects. For example, if the cherry-cherry-cherry is a winning signal, it is informed that if there is a cherry in the first reel, the probability of victory has increased. However, since the result of the spin is resolved immediately, there is no near-miss event like cherry-cherry-cherry.

Animal experiment

Despite being required to increase experimental analysis of gambling behavior using no n-human animals (Weatherly and PHELPS 2006), animal research on the nea r-miss effect is quite sparse. This is a surprising thing, given that animal research is generally a historic ahead of strengthening issues. Nevertheless, some research has room for debate. Furthermore, the near-miss can be globally (that is, cherry-cherry-lemon can be regarded as a single stimulus), or locally (that is, each element as individual stimuli). From a global perspective, the conditional enhancement effect of the stimulus associated with the victory may be more common in the near mistakes than other, different mistakes (Belisle and Dixon 2016; Daly et al.) Stimulation. Evidence that matches the explanation of generalization is obtained by the knowledge that the reel result, which is visually similar by victory, causes a more similar time in the event of a victory. However, it is known that stimuli that is close to victory does not increase the hiding time, but may be shorter (Dixon et al.) The most problematic is that these research focus only on the invasion, overall. It is not reported about the reaction rate. The reinforced agent has a higher reaction rate and has a more cumulative reaction over time intervals (Ferster and Skinner 1957). Therefore, the evidence that the strengthening function of victory stimuli is generalized for the near miss is also necessary to prove that near miss it increases the total number of bets or bet rates. Nearmiss events may function as conditional enhancement factors by local effects. For example, if the cherry-cherry-cherry is a winning signal, it is informed that if there is a cherry in the first reel, the probability of victory has increased. However, since the result of the spin is resolved immediately, there is no near-miss event like cherry-cherry-cherry.

Animal experiment

Despite being required to increase experimental analysis of gambling behavior using no n-human animals (Weatherly and PHELPS 2006), animal research on the nea r-miss effect is quite sparse. This is a surprising thing, given that animal research is generally a historic ahead of strengthening issues. Nevertheless, some research has room for debate. Furthermore, near-miss can be globally (that is, cherry-cherry-lemon can be regarded as a single stimulus), or locally (that is, each element is an individual stimulus). From a global perspective, the conditional enhancement effect of the stimulus associated with the victory may be more common in the near mistakes than other, different mistakes (Belisle and Dixon 2016; Daly et al.) Stimulation. Evidence that matches the explanation of generalization is obtained by the knowledge that the reel result, which is visually similar by victory, causes a more similar time in the event of a victory. However, it is known that stimuli that is close to victory does not increase the hiding time, but may be shorter (Dixon et al.) The most problematic is that these research focus only on the invasion, overall. It is not reported about the reaction rate. The reinforced agent has a higher reaction rate and has a more cumulative reaction over time intervals (Ferster and Skinner 1957). Therefore, the evidence that the strengthening function of victory stimuli is generalized for the near miss is also necessary to prove that near miss it increases the total number of bets or bet rates. Nearmiss events may function as conditional enhancement factors by local effects. For example, if the cherry-cherry-cherry is a winning signal, it is informed that if there is a cherry in the first reel, the probability of victory has increased. However, since the result of the spin is resolved immediately, there is no near-miss event like cherry-cherry-cherry.

Animal experiment

Winstanley et al. (2011) measured the extinction rate on the reaction of the two groups of the two groups to the roll lever using the improved slot machine analog (Peters et al. 2010; Weatherly and Derenne 2007). In parallel with various neuropharosis treatment, we tried a trial, including a nea r-miss in one group consisting of eight rats, and the other group without nea r-miss. Rat obtained the bait obtained in response to the collect lever. Pressing this lever in the loss test would result in a time out penalty, so it was advantageous to press only when there was a signal of victory. There was no significant difference between the two groups. The reaction of the collect lever increased linearly as a function of victory, for example, more frequently after the nea r-miss, for example, but this reflects the "process similar to a nea r-miss effect". It was suggested that it could be (p. 917). This finding is consistent with the explanation of the stimulus of nea r-miss, but it should not be ignored that such effects were not seen in the critical disappearance measurement with a higher relevant roll lever. In advance research using similar methods, the increase in sustainability in the roll lever was not allowed (Peters et al. 2010).

Human experiments Winstanley et al. (2011) measure the extinction rate of two groups of rats to the roll lever using the improved slot machine analog (Peters et al. 2010; Weatherly and Derenne 2007). did. In parallel with various neuropharosis treatment, we tried a trial, including a nea r-miss in one group consisting of eight rats, and the other group without nea r-miss. Rat obtained the bait obtained in response to the collect lever. Pressing this lever in the loss test would result in a time out penalty, so it was advantageous to press only when there was a signal of victory. There was no significant difference between the two groups. The reaction of the collect lever increased linearly as a function of victory, for example, more frequently after the nea r-miss, for example, but this reflects the "process similar to a nea r-miss effect". It was suggested that it could be (p. 917). This finding is consistent with the explanation of the stimulus of nea r-miss, but it should not be ignored that such effects were not seen in the critical disappearance measurement with a higher relevant roll lever. In advance research using similar methods, the increase in sustainability in the roll lever was not allowed (Peters et al. 2010).

Other research explores the effects of knear missing in selected paradigm. Two noticeable studies have examined pigeons at the same time (Fortes et al.) Pigeons, who have consistently not included nea r-miss in various operations. The result is both a delayed theory and the conditional interpretation of the conditional enhancement model by the double curve collapse model.

Another selection study analyzed the matching (Davison and McCarththy 1988) between the reaction rate and the value of the enhancer (Rice and Kyonka 2017). As a result, it was shown that the whole three pigeons had a consistent bias in the "gambling" options, including nea r-miss, compared to the options that had no loss (there was no near miss). However, the same bias was not observed when testing a gambling option, including nea r-miss, was tested for similar probable options that do not include nea r-miss.₁₀Human experimental Winstanley et al. (2011) measured the extinction rate of two groups of rats to the roll lever using the improved slot machine analog (Peters et al. 2010; Weatherly and Derenne 2007). In parallel with various neuropharosis treatment, we tried a trial, including a nea r-miss in one group consisting of eight rats, and the other group without nea r-miss. Rat obtained the bait obtained in response to the collect lever. Pressing this lever in the loss test would result in a time out penalty, so it was advantageous to press only when there was a signal of victory. There was no significant difference between the two groups. The reaction of the collect lever increased linearly as a function of victory, for example, more frequently after the nea r-miss, for example, but this reflects the "process similar to a nea r-miss effect". It was suggested that it could be (p. 917). This finding is consistent with the explanation of the stimulus of nea r-miss, but it should not be ignored that such effects were not seen in the critical disappearance measurement with a higher relevant roll lever. In advance research using similar methods, the increase in sustainability in the roll lever was not allowed (Peters et al. 2010).

Other research explores the effects of knear missing in selected paradigm. Two noticeable studies have examined pigeons at the same time (Fortes et al.) Pigeons, who have consistently not included nea r-miss in various operations. The result is both a delayed theory and the conditional interpretation of the conditional enhancement model by the double curve collapse model.₁₀Another selection study analyzed the matching (Davison and McCarththy 1988) between the reaction rate and the value of the enhancer (Rice and Kyonka 2017). As a result, it was shown that the whole three pigeons had a consistent bias in the "gambling" options, including nea r-miss, compared to the options that had no loss (there was no near miss). However, the same bias was not observed when testing a gambling option, including nea r-miss, was tested for similar probable options that do not include nea r-miss.

Human experiment

Although there is considerable evidence that near-miss events affect subjective measures (e. g., self-report) and physiological responses (e. g., skin conductance, heart rate, brain activity), there is surprisingly little direct experimental testing of the putative reinforcing function of near-misses on gambling persistence. Effects on subjective motivation and physiological responses are consistent with a reinforcing effect on gambling frequency, but without direct behavioral measures, it is impossible to demonstrate such effects in practice. For example, Dymond et al. (2014) found that increased activity in brain regions related to winning correlated with near-misses (similar effects were also seen in pigeons' neurophysiological responses to near-misses; see Scarf et al. (2011)), as well as with trait measures of gambling tendency. They claim to have found "compelling evidence that reward-related brain responses to near-miss outcomes, particularly the insular cortex, are involved in the maintenance of PG (problem gambling)" (p. 216). Although the inference that near misses enhance activity in brain regions related to winning is valid, the contribution of these near misses to problem gambling is based on questionnaires that do not directly assess the relationship between near misses and players' actual gambling behavior. Other studies have similar limitations (Billieux et al. 2012; Clark et al.).₁₀Several experimental studies are often cited as evidence that near misses have a reinforcing function. Strickland and Grote (1967) found that participants who had more frequent winning symbols on the earlier reels of a slot machine (i. e., near misses were more frequent than far misses) chose to continue playing significantly more than participants who had more far misses than near misses. However, the average number of play trials for participants who chose to continue playing was not significantly different between the two groups. Reid (1986) attempted two systematic replications of Strickland and Grote's study, one using cards from a slot machine task and the other using a simulated slot machine. Only the latter showed the same pattern of results as Strickland and Grote, but neither yielded significant effects.

More recently, Kassinove and School (2001) has operated the frequency of near miss under a fou r-reel slot machine syntax. The probability of nea r-miss was 15 %, 30 %, and 45 % by the group. After that, the participants were on the extinction condition that they could remove both the win and the nea r-miss and continue playing as much as they wanted. The 30 % of the groups showed the most sustainability during the extinction. In the sel f-report conducted after extinction, there was no group difference in the willingness to resume play in the future. The authors explain the results from the perspective of conditions, and the 45 % nea r-mist frequency of the nea r-miss was too high (led to the extinction of the respondents), whereas the 15 % conditions were too low. (Pairing was not enough). The average value (SD) was 5. 88 (8. 06), 10. 26 (11. 47), and 6. 66 (8. 22), respectively, with 15 %, 30 % and 45 % groups. This study is one of the most frequently quoted research as evidence of the strengthening function of near miss. But there are several potential problems. First, Kassinove and Schare analyzed extinct data using parametric statistics, which can be a problem with large biased data. In the extinction, the probability of reacting decreases with no forced reaction, and the data is greatly restrained by zero. Furthermore, assuming that their data is symmetrical, based on the obtained diversification, Kassinove and School (2001) is a 4-reel slo t-machine simulation, based on the obtained diversification. The frequency of the near miss was operated. The probability of nea r-miss was 15 %, 30 %, and 45 % by the group. After that, the participants were on the extinction condition that they could remove both the win and the nea r-miss and continue playing as much as they wanted. The 30 % of the groups showed the most sustainability during the extinction. In the sel f-report conducted after extinction, there was no group difference in the willingness to resume play in the future. The authors explain the results from the perspective of conditions, and the 45 % nea r-mist frequency of the nea r-miss was too high (led to the extinction of the respondents), whereas the 15 % conditions were too low. (Pairing was not enough). The average value (SD) was 5. 88 (8. 06), 10. 26 (11. 47), and 6. 66 (8. 22), respectively, with 15 %, 30 % and 45 % groups. This study is one of the most frequently quoted research as evidence of the strengthening function of near miss. But there are several potential problems. First, Kassinove and Schare analyzed extinct data using parametric statistics, which can be a problem with large biased data. In the extinction, the probability of reacting decreases with no forced reaction, and the data is greatly restrained by zero. Furthermore, assuming that their data is symmetrical, based on the obtained diversification, recently, Kassinove and School (2001) is a 4-reeled slot machine simulation, and the frequency of nea r-miss. Operated. The probability of nea r-miss was 15 %, 30 %, and 45 % by the group. After that, the participants were on the extinction condition that they could remove both the win and the nea r-miss and continue playing as much as they wanted. The 30 % of the groups showed the most sustainability during the extinction. In the sel f-report conducted after extinction, there was no group difference in the willingness to resume play in the future. The authors explain the results from the perspective of conditions, and the 45 % nea r-mist frequency of the nea r-miss was too high (led to the extinction of the respondents), whereas the 15 % conditions were too low. (Pairing was not enough). The average value (SD) was 5. 88 (8. 06), 10. 26 (11. 47), and 6. 66 (8. 22), respectively, with 15 %, 30 % and 45 % groups. This study is one of the most frequently quoted research as evidence of the strengthening function of near miss. But there are several potential problems. First, Kassinove and Schare analyzed extinct data using parametric statistics, which can be a problem with large biased data. In the extinction, the probability of reacting decreases with no forced reaction, and the data is greatly restrained by zero. Furthermore, assuming that their data is symmetrical, APPR. Based on the obtained diversification

Of these three experiments, only one of the primary effects of the nea r-miss density of gambling durability was only one, and the most effective density was 66 %. As a whole, GHEZZI's findings did not match the original paper. Although there was a remarkable difference in procedure from the original two studies, the failure of this reproducibility is a concern for the stubbornness of the nea r-miss effect on gambling sustainability.

Conditional reinforced near mistakes occur in accidental games, but what is decisively different is that the results are random in accounting games. In a standard slot machine, if the election is shown in Cherry Cherry Cherry, "Cherry Cherry Lemon" is considered a near miss. The latest slot machines are equipped with a pseud o-random number generator (RNG), which continuously circulates about 1000 different values per second. For each bet, the machine selects the current position of the cycle and outputs the correlated reel to the display (Schüll 2012). Unlike basketball free throw, the probability of winning with a slot machine does not improve how much you practice. Furthermore, even if you make a nea r-miss, you will not be more useful for the next victory than other types of mistakes. If the nea r-miss in a chance game is irrelevant to the winning or losing and cannot be used to increase the winning rate, why is Niamis considered a "near" mistake?

In MacLin et al. (2007), he had a recreation slot machine and gambler play three thre e-reel slot machines at the same time to earn points. Each machine had a nea r-miss presentation frequency: 15%, 30%, and 45%. After 100 trials, the participants were able to choose to continue playing to get the chance to get the highest score of the participants. However, at this point, the machine stopped paying a prize (that is, disappearing). Participants were the most frequently at 45 % on average, and was the smallest in 15 %, but the difference was not statistically significant. Among their three experiments, only one of the main effects of nea r-miss density for gambling sustainability was one, and the most effective density was 66 %. As a whole, GHEZZI's findings did not match the original paper. Although there was a remarkable difference in procedure from the original two studies, the failure of this reproducibility is a concern for the stubbornness of the nea r-miss effect on gambling sustainability.

COTE and others (2003) were played with money on a thre e-reeled video slot machine. In the first stage, 48 trials were performed, programs were programmed so that the near miss was 12 times and 9 wins. In the second stage, the participants were exterminated without knowing. In the experimental group, the disappearance has removed only wins. In the control group, both victory and near miss were erased. Participants were able to stop playing at any time, and their profits were maintained. As a result of no n-parametric analysis, participants in the experimental group played more significantly during the extinction compared to the control group. This study is quoted as a powerful evidence of the nea r-miss effect, but we believe that there is a remarkable concern that a typical slot machine does not evidence that the nea r-miss enhances gambling sustainability. Specifically, in the first stage of the experiment, there was a nea r-miss before each victory. This accident means that each time you encounter a nea r-miss, the next trial will have a 75 % victory, so Nearmiss predicts the probability of victory. This accident is expected to have an enhanced effect, but does not exist in a general slot machine.

In MacLin et al. (2007), he had a recreation slot machine and gambler play three thre e-reel slot machines at the same time to earn points. Each machine had a nea r-miss presentation frequency: 15%, 30%, and 45%. After 100 trials, the participants were able to choose to continue playing to get the chance to get the highest score of the participants. However, at this point, the machine stopped paying a prize (that is, disappearing). Participants were the most frequently at 45 % on average, and was the smallest in 15 %, but the difference was not statistically significant. Of these three experiments, only one of the primary effects of the nea r-miss density of gambling durability was only one, and the most effective density was 66 %. As a whole, GHEZZI's findings did not match the original paper. Although there was a remarkable difference in procedure from the original two studies, the failure of this reproducibility is a concern for the stubbornness of the nea r-miss effect on gambling sustainability.<\raise0.5ex\hbox<$\scriptstyle 1$>COTE and others (2003) were played with money on a thre e-reeled video slot machine. In the first stage, 48 trials were performed, programs were programmed so that the near miss was 12 times and 9 wins. In the second stage, the participants were exterminated without knowing. In the experimental group, the disappearance has removed only wins. In the control group, both victory and near miss were erased. Participants were able to stop playing at any time, and their profits were maintained. As a result of no n-parametric analysis, participants in the experimental group played more significantly during the extinction compared to the control group. This study is quoted as a powerful evidence of the nea r-miss effect, but we believe that there is a remarkable concern that a typical slot machine does not evidence that the nea r-miss enhances gambling sustainability. Specifically, in the first stage of the experiment, there was a nea r-miss before each victory. This accident means that each time you encounter a nea r-miss, the next trial will have a 75 % victory, so Nearmiss predicts the probability of victory. This accident is expected to have an enhanced effect, but does not exist in a general slot machine.

Animal experiment

Other studies that do not use per syste m-based methodology, as well as those who support the nea r-miss effect (Kurucz and KoerMendi 2012; Tan et al. Sundali et al. They investigated the data of 36 players using regression analysis, and no evidence was found in the play time and the number of bets.

Animal experiment

The number of trials of training was between 20 and 100 times in each study. Of the research indicating the increase in sustainability, COTE (2003) used 48 trials, Kassinove and School (2001) used 50 trials, and Strickland and Grote (1967) used 100 trials. Interestingly, GHEZZI (2006) discovered that the number of training trials (25, 50, 75, 100 times), and only after 25 trials. This raises important issues: What is the appropriate training amount in these studies? In general, it seems that more training is more desirable than less training, but this may apply to participants who have little experience in chance games. Their expectations for gambling could contradict the accidental gambling accident, where experiments are going to model, and as a result, bias that cannot be challenged by lo w-level training. Therefore, the results of beginners gambling may be different from experienced gamblers, especially when the training level is low.

Due to the effects of skinners, the suggestion that near missing the near missing as a condition enhancement factor is almost obvious, but in the reviews of experimental research, the inconsistent result and determination that Niami sucks will affect the continuation of gambling. No evidence has been obtained. Many humans use one of the programs designed to imitate a real lottery terminal or casino slot machine, which increases external validity, but analyzes the basic effects. And the comparison between research may be complicated. Motivation levels may vary greatly between individuals, and basic parameters, such as sampled groups and the number of trials, often differ depending on the experiment. There is no doubt that the pursuit of external validity hinders the establishment of the internal validity of Hiyari hat research. What is needed seems to be a more controlled analysis, reminiscent of the research that Skinner likes.

Overview of experiments

Other research explores the effects of knear missing in selected paradigm. Two noticeable studies have examined pigeons at the same time (Fortes et al.) Pigeons, who have consistently not included nea r-miss in various operations. The result is both a delayed theory and the conditional interpretation of the conditional enhancement model by the double curve collapse model.

Pigeons have a long history in enhancing conditions and general learning research (Logue 2002). Pigeons have excellent visual acuity, can easily adjust the level of motivation, and indicate a steeper discount rate compared to other common experimental animals (Stevens and Stephens 2009), so the contrasting analysis of the hiyari hat effect. Many characteristics are suitable. There is a theory that a sudden delay discount is involved in the enhancement schedule and many of the problem gamblers are involved in many no n-adaptive behaviors (Rachlin et al. 2015). By enhancing experimental management, the behavior data obtained by animal models is more reliable than studying in humans, but the results must be verified as possible.₁Overview of experiments₁In Experiment 1 and 2, both resistor-extinct paradigm verified the enhancement function of the near-miss stimulus pattern and the Farmis contrast pattern in both pigeons and humans. If two remarkable experimental demonstrations (Cote et al. 2003; Kassinove and School 2001) of the nea r-miss effects use the same logic, if the Near Miss event works as a condition enhancement factor rather than other types of mistakes. A greater extinction resistance should occur under higher conditions than the Farmis event. Due to the effects of skinners, the suggestion that near missing the near missing as a condition enhancement factor is almost obvious, but in the reviews of experimental research, the inconsistent result and determination that Niami sucks will affect the continuation of gambling. No evidence has been obtained. Many humans use one of the programs designed to imitate a real lottery terminal or casino slot machine, which increases external validity, but analyzes the basic effects. And the comparison between research may be complicated. Motivation levels may vary greatly between individuals, and basic parameters, such as sampled groups and the number of trials, often differ depending on the experiment. There is no doubt that the pursuit of external validity hinders the establishment of the internal validity of Hiyari hat research. What is needed seems to be a more controlled analysis, reminiscent of the research that Skinner likes.₁Pigeons have a long history in enhancing conditions and general learning research (Logue 2002). Pigeons have excellent visual acuity, can easily adjust the level of motivation, and indicate a steeper discount rate compared to other common experimental animals (Stevens and Stephens 2009), so the contrasting analysis of the hiyari hat effect. Many characteristics are suitable. There is a theory that a sudden delay discount is involved in the enhancement schedule and many of the problem gamblers are involved in many no n-adaptive behaviors (Rachlin et al. 2015). By enhancing experimental management, the behavior data obtained by animal models is more reliable than studying in humans, but the results must be verified as possible.

Overview of experiments₁₀In Experiment 1 and 2, both resistor-extinct paradigm verified the enhancement function of the near-miss stimulus pattern and the Farmis contrast pattern in both pigeons and humans. If two remarkable experimental demonstrations (Cote et al. 2003; Kassinove and School 2001) of the nea r-miss effects use the same logic, if the Near Miss event works as a condition enhancement factor rather than other types of mistakes. A greater extinction resistance should occur under higher conditions than the Farmis event.₁₀Experiment 3 was planned to deal with the lack of a nea r-miss effect in Experiment 1 and 2. In this experiment, pigeons were used and no near miss events were used. Instead, one of the two single reel stimulation was performed against food and accident, and the ability to induce conditional reactions was verified. After that, the presence of condition stimuli was tested during the extinction and evaluated the validity of tests based on the extinction of the endurance of behavioral sustainability.₁₀Experiment 1a and 1b

Experiment method

Subjects and equipment

In both experiments 1a and 1b, I used Columba Livia for randomly selected from the colony room at the University of Alberta and used it for experiments. This is the same as adopted in STAGNER et al. (2015), which is larger than other pigeons (Fortes and other 2017; Rice and Kyonka 2017; Scarf and other 2011). Interior design, which is wel l-balanced in animal research, enhances statistical detection power. The subject was in a 65 x 27 x 7 0-inch flight cage and was bred in a 1 2-hour sunshine cycle from a temperature of 20 ° C and 6:00 pm. All birds were able to freely use vitamin reinforced water and crushed oyster sand indoors in the colony room. After the experiment, the amount of feeding of Mazuri Game Bird Food Pellets (made by PMI Nutrition International Company) was maintained to 80 % of the weight when feeding.

Conditional reinforced near mistakes occur in accidental games, but what is decisively different is that the results are random in accounting games. In a standard slot machine, if the election is shown in Cherry Cherry Cherry, "Cherry Cherry Lemon" is considered a near miss. The latest slot machines are equipped with a pseud o-random number generator (RNG), which continuously circulates about 1000 different values per second. For each bet, the machine selects the current position of the cycle and outputs the correlated reel to the display (Schüll 2012). Unlike basketball free throw, the probability of winning with a slot machine does not improve how much you practice. Furthermore, even if you make a nea r-miss, you will not be more useful for the next victory than other types of mistakes. If the nea r-miss in a chance game is irrelevant to the winning or losing and cannot be used to increase the winning rate, why is Niamis considered a "near" mistake?

The answer seems to be that the nea r-miss is visually winning "almost". For example, cherry cherry lemon is more like the victory shown in three cherry than the cherry lemon lemon. In the case of basketball free throw, the visual aspect of the situation gives players a useful feedback. However, slot machines' nea r-miss feedback is not practical to improve performance. One possibility is that the visual aspect of the nea r-miss uses the advanced learning process (especially the condition enhancement) to detect accidental (or not random) results. This manuscript first reviews existing documents on the effects of knear missing gambling sustainability, and then in both humans and pigeons, to verify the possibility of strengthening the nea r-miss stimulus for gambling sustainability. Introducing the results of the experiment designed.

The irritants were presented on a black background and were lined up behind the holes opened in the barrier. The white peecked circle was presented to the smaller hole of 1 inch. The winning pattern and the losing pattern (that is, the reel pattern) was presented in the upper three circles. In the experimental 1A, each reel pattern consists only of elements that make up the winning reel pattern, and is displayed as three red circles. The winnings occurred when all three circles were red. Nearmiss occurred when only the left and center circles were red. Nearmiss occurred when only the left and right circles were red. Farmis occurs when only the middle and right circles are red. Finally, a single mistake occurred when only one circle was red. In single mistakes, each of the three places turned red with the same probability. The no n-illuminated circle remained black. The experiment 1b was the same, but the no n-irradiation circle was colored blue. For example, a trial indicating furmith is displayed in blu e-red red, and blue shows that. The red circle is a hypothetical SD stimulation (that is, the stimulus that leads to reinforcement), and the blue circle is a hypothetical Sδ stimulation (that is, the stimulus that leads to no n-enhancement). \ thickness 0. 1em/0. 15em) A white plastic barrier is attached in front of the screen, and malfunction (for example, the subject's wings, body, and legs contact screens). I tried not to hinder the recording ability. There were four holes in the barrier. In order to visually identify the reel stimulus, there were three horizontal circles with a diameter of 1. 5 inches, and a 1-inch diameter 1 inch hole was made in the middle of the three circles in the middle of the three circles.

Animal experiment

Despite being required to increase experimental analysis of gambling behavior using no n-human animals (Weatherly and PHELPS 2006), animal research on the nea r-miss effect is quite sparse. This is a surprising thing, given that animal research is generally a historic ahead of strengthening issues. Nevertheless, some research has room for debate. Furthermore, near-miss can be globally (that is, cherry-cherry-lemon can be regarded as a single stimulus), or locally (that is, each element is an individual stimulus). From a global perspective, the conditional enhancement effect of the stimulus associated with the victory may be more common in the near mistakes than other, different mistakes (Belisle and Dixon 2016; Daly et al.) Stimulation. Evidence that matches the explanation of generalization is obtained by the knowledge that the reel result, which is visually similar by victory, causes a more similar time in the event of a victory. However, it is known that stimuli that is close to victory does not increase the hiding time, but may be shorter (Dixon et al.) The most problematic is that these research focus only on the invasion, overall. It is not reported about the reaction rate. The reinforced agent has a higher reaction rate and has a more cumulative reaction over time intervals (Ferster and Skinner 1957). Therefore, the evidence that the strengthening function of victory stimuli is generalized for the near miss is also necessary to prove that near miss it increases the total number of bets or bet rates. Nearmiss events may function as conditional enhancement factors by local effects. For example, if the cherry-cherry-cherry is a winning signal, it is informed that if there is a cherry in the first reel, the probability of victory has increased. However, since the result of the spin is resolved immediately, there is no near-miss event like cherry-cherry-cherry.

Animal experiment

Schematic diagram showing the sequence of events for wins (left column) and big losses (right column) in the third element of the pre-exposure phase of Experiment 1a. "W" and "R" denote the colors white and red, respectively. Grey circles denote empty/unused circles. Circles are always illuminated from left to right (Color figure online).

Ethics statement

All procedures regarding the care and use of animals conformed to the ethical standards of the University of Alberta, Canadian Council on Animal Care, and were approved by the Biosciences Animal Care and Use Committee (Protocol AUP00002018).

Procedure

Other research explores the effects of knear missing in selected paradigm. Two noticeable studies have examined pigeons at the same time (Fortes et al.) Pigeons, who have consistently not included nea r-miss in various operations. The result is both a delayed theory and the conditional interpretation of the conditional enhancement model by the double curve collapse model.

Before the exposure, the subject started the basic aut o-shaping (SchWartz and Gamzu 1977), incorporating the contingency of the fixed ratio 1 (FR1). Here, a white circle was presented behind the lower reaction hole for 10 seconds or a bird piling. After 10 seconds or a white circle once, the circle disappears, the light of the left or right feed entrance lights up, and the hopper rises. When the bird's head enters the port, the birds can be eaten from the hopper for one second. After that, the portlight disappears, the hopper drops, and the 240 second interval starts. I repeated this process for 90 minutes. All the subjects stayed in this component for three consecutive sessions. The experiment was configured as a repetitive measurement plan with two processes: near-mistakes and fur-Miss processing. The order of these treatments for each subject was randomly determined in accordance with the Latin square plan (that is, the subject x treatment). Before each treatment, there was a pr e-exposure stage consisting of three elements. Experimental sessions were carried out only by one handler to further reduce the cause of no n-systematic fluctuations that could occur in extinctio n-based designs. Furthermore, since the noise of the hopper in the adjacent operant chamber could confuse the measured values during the extinction period, all pigeons are the same day as the other pigeons that have participated in the experiment at the same time. ・ Interacted to carry out time.< 0.001, 95% CI [0.986, .999], d = 118.90, BF ₁₀Before the exposure, the subject started the basic aut o-shaping (SchWartz and Gamzu 1977), incorporating the contingency of the fixed ratio 1 (FR1). Here, a white circle was presented behind the lower reaction hole for 10 seconds or a bird piling. After 10 seconds or a white circle once, the circle disappears, the light of the left or right feed entrance lights up, and the hopper rises. When the bird's head enters the port, the birds can be eaten from the hopper for one second. After that, the portlight disappears, the hopper drops, and the 240 second interval starts. I repeated this process for 90 minutes. All the subjects stayed in this component for three consecutive sessions. The experiment was configured as a repetitive measurement plan with two processes: near-mistakes and fur-Miss processing. The order of these treatments for each subject was randomly determined in accordance with the Latin square plan (that is, the subject x treatment). Before each treatment, there was a pr e-exposure stage consisting of three elements. Experimental sessions were carried out only by one handler to further reduce the cause of no n-systematic fluctuations that could occur in extinctio n-based designs. Furthermore, since the noise of the hopper in the adjacent operant chamber could confuse the measured values during the extinction period, all pigeons are the same day as the other pigeons that have participated in the experiment at the same time. ・ Interacted to carry out time.

In the last element of exposure, the subject was implemented on a no n-random ratio 5 (RR5) schedule. As with the variable ratio (VR) schedule, the RR schedule usually includes average reaction requirements. However, unlike the VR schedule, the RR schedule is determined by a pseud o-random number generation, in contrast to the predetermined reinforcement and no n-reinforced trials (HURLBURT et al. 1980; Zeiler 1977). In this exposed component, each knob was performed at least at least 2400 milliseconds, but during this interval, the reel stimulation was presented in the upper three circles. Birds could access food only after winning. All of the reels were equivalent. Specifically, winning, near mistakes, and all other losers occurred with a probability of 20 %, each of which was equal to 30 times. Each bird received 90 minutes sessions 15 times. The 76th bird, who only received the RR5 schedule in the first half of the experiment 1B, is different. After the auto shaping, the subject entered the FR1 schedule. The reaction was performed in the lower reaction hole as before. After pinching once, the white peecked circle disappeared, and the subject had to wait 2400 milliseconds until the left or right hopper was feeding. The FR1 schedule performed a 9 0-minute session once. In the next session, the schedule was extended to the FR3 (that is, to access the bait three times). The 2400 millisecond interval was implemented after all reactions. After the FR3 session, the schedule was extended to FR6 and another session was held. This procedure was performed on all birds, except for Bird 76, an experimental 1B that had an unusually low reaction after moving to the FR1 schedule. Auto shaking resumed until a high response was obtained on the FR1 schedule. In the first half of the bird 76 sessions, the FR3 and FR6 conditions were skipped in the first half of the bird 76 sessions so that they could maximize to accidental events.

In the last element of exposure, the subject was implemented on a no n-random ratio 5 (RR5) schedule. As with the variable ratio (VR) schedule, the RR schedule usually includes average reaction requirements. However, unlike the VR schedule, the RR schedule is determined by a pseud o-random number generation, in contrast to the predetermined reinforcement and no n-reinforced trials (HURLBURT et al. 1980; Zeiler 1977). In this exposed component, each knob was performed at least at least 2400 milliseconds, but during this interval, the reel stimulation was presented in the upper three circles. Birds could access food only after winning. All of the reels were equivalent. Specifically, winning, near mistakes, and all other losers occurred with a probability of 20 %, each of which was equal to 30 times. Each bird received 90 minutes sessions 15 times. The 76th bird, who only received the RR5 schedule in the first half of the experiment 1B, is different. After the auto shaping, the subject entered the FR1 schedule. The reaction was performed in the lower reaction hole as before. After pinching once, the white peecked circle disappeared, and the subject had to wait 2400 milliseconds until the left or right hopper was feeding. The FR1 schedule performed a 9 0-minute session once. In the next session, the schedule was extended to the FR3 (that is, to access the bait three times). The 2400 millisecond interval was implemented after all reactions. After the FR3 session, the schedule was extended to FR6 and another session was held. This procedure was performed on all birds, except for Bird 76, an experimental 1B that had an unusually low reaction after moving to the FR1 schedule. Auto shaking resumed until a high response was obtained on the FR1 schedule. In the first half of the bird 76 sessions, the FR3 and FR6 conditions were skipped in the first half of the bird 76 sessions so that they could maximize to accidental events.

At the treatment stage, all subjects received a nea r-miss treatment or Farmis treatment after the exposure stage. In both treatments, the reaction in the white key was extinguished. Specifically, all winning reels and unconditional enhancements were replaced with a nea r-miss or furmith reel pattern. For example, the subject in a nea r-miss treatment experienced a nea r-miss with a 40 % probability, no victory, and the ratio of other loss feedback was not changed. Subjects did not give any additional signals to inform you of the change in the schedule. After the first treatment stage, all subjects were returned to the stage before exposure and completed the following treatment conditions (that is, pigeons, which first started the nea r-miss treatment, completed the Farmis treatment. The opposite was the same).

Results and consideration

Statistical analysis was performed using R 3. 5. 0 (R Core Team 2018). The average difference in resistance to extinction between the nea r-miss treatment and the furmith treatment was evaluated for the cumulative number of the reactions made in a pair of T-test. The effect was calculated using the inclined estimate of COHEN D (see Cumming 2012 equation 11. 13). In order to consider the decrease in spinning due to the pair design, the D estimated value was standardized using the standard deviation of the difference. JZS Bayes coefficient (BF) using a mediu m-ranked advance distribution to obtain relative odds that support the opposing hypothesis for the returnless hypothesis

) Is calculated (More and Rouder 2011, 2015).

The results of experimental 1A are shown in the upper row of Fig. 2. Contrary to the prediction of the nea r-miss effect, the nea r-miss processing is an overall reaction in extinction (M = 613. 25, 95% CI [407. 26 [407. 26 [M = 613. 25, 95% , 819. 24]. However, the difference between the two processing was not statistically significant, and the obtained Bayes coefficient was not significantly large, t (7) = -1. 68, 95% CI [-410. 75, 69. 00], p = 0. 136, d = 0. 53, BF

= 0. 92. In the treatment stage, all subjects received a nea r-miss or Farmis treatment after the exposure stage. In both treatments, the reaction in the white key was extinguished. Specifically, all winning reels and unconditional enhancements were replaced with a nea r-miss or furmith reel pattern. For example, the subject in a nea r-miss treatment experienced a nea r-miss with a 40 % probability, no victory, and the ratio of other loss feedback was not changed. Subjects did not give any additional signals to inform you of the change in the schedule. After the first treatment stage, all subjects were returned to the stage before exposure and completed the following treatment conditions (that is, pigeons, which first started the nea r-miss treatment, completed the Farmis treatment. The opposite was the same).

Results and consideration

) Is calculated (More and Rouder 2011, 2015).

The results of experimental 1A are shown in the upper row of Fig. 2. Contrary to the prediction of the nea r-miss effect, the nea r-miss processing is an overall reaction in extinction (M = 613. 25, 95% CI [407. 26 [407. 26 [M = 613. 25, 95% , 819. 24]. However, the difference between the two processing was not statistically significant, and the obtained Bayes coefficient was not significantly large, t (7) = -1. 68, 95% CI [-410. 75, 69. 00], p = 0. 136, d = 0. 53, BF
= 0. 92. In the treatment stage, after the exposure stage, all subjects received either nea r-miss or Farmis treatment. In both treatments, the reaction in the white key was extinguished. Specifically, all winning reels and unconditional enhancements were replaced with a nea r-miss or furmith reel pattern. For example, the subject in a nea r-miss treatment experienced a nea r-miss with a 40 % probability, no victory, and the ratio of other loss feedback was not changed. Subjects did not give any additional signals to inform you of the change in the schedule. After the first treatment stage, all subjects were returned to the stage before exposure and completed the following treatment conditions (that is, pigeons, which first started the nea r-miss treatment, completed the Farmis treatment. The opposite was the same).
Results and consideration
Statistical analysis was performed using R 3. 5. 0 (R Core Team 2018). The average difference in resistance to extinction between the nea r-miss treatment and the furmith treatment was evaluated for the cumulative number of the reactions made in a pair of T-test. The effect was calculated using the inclined estimate of COHEN D (see Cumming 2012 equation 11. 13). In order to consider the decrease in spinning due to the pair design, the D estimated value was standardized using the standard deviation of the difference. JZS Bayes coefficient (BF) using a mediu m-ranked advance distribution to obtain relative odds that support the opposing hypothesis for the returnless hypothesis
) Is calculated (More and Rouder 2011, 2015).
The results of experimental 1A are shown in the upper row of Fig. 2. Contrary to the prediction of the nea r-miss effect, the nea r-miss processing is an overall reaction in extinction (M = 613. 25, 95% CI [407. 26 [407. 26 [M = 613. 25, 95% , 819. 24]. However, the difference between the two processing was not statistically significant, and the obtained Bayes coefficient was not significantly large, t (7) = -1. 68, 95% CI [-410. 75, 69. 00], p = 0. 136, d = 0. 53, BF
= 0. 92.
Results of Experiments 1a (top) and 1b (bottom). The leftmost plot shows the mean cumulative response at extinction in the near miss and far miss treatments. The middle plot shows the mean difference between these treatments. All error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. The rightmost plot shows the mean cumulative response across five extinction trials. Circles and diamonds represent the near miss and far miss extinction treatments, respectively.
The results of Experiment 1b are depicted in the bottom panel of Figure 2 and, like Experiment 1a, are inconclusive. The mean cumulative responses in the near-miss treatment (M = 677. 88, 95% CI [436. 94, 918. 81]) were slightly more frequent during extinction than the corresponding far-miss control treatment (M = 573. 12, 95% CI [353. 40, 792. 85]), t (7) = 1. 44, 95% CI [- 67. 31, 276. 81], p = 0. 193, d = 0. 45, BF
= 0. 73.
Overall, the results of Experiments 1a and 1b failed to provide evidence that near-misses have a conditioned reinforcing function on gambling responses. However, it is possible that the postulated near-miss effect is a uniquely human phenomenon and does not apply to organisms other than humans and primates. While the literature on operant conditioning seems to be at odds with such a hypothesis, given the strong reliability of reinforcement processes across multiple species, the possibility should nevertheless be considered. While the animal-based literature has for the most part failed to conclusively demonstrate the reinforcing properties of near-miss stimuli, the human-based literature has at least occasionally succeeded. With this in mind, in Experiment 2 we applied the procedures of Experiments 1a and 1b to human participants.
Experiment 2
Method
Participants and Apparatus
The company recruited 296 participants (Homo Sapiens) from the research pool of the Introduction to Psychology at the University of Alberta. The sample was composed of 192 women and 104 men, with an average age of 19. 3. Of these, n = 178 was used for the final analysis (see the result section for details of exclusion criteria). G*Power 3. 1. Using a computer program (FAUL ET AL. 2007), for detection of interaction with the main effect, for the detection power level of 80 %, the "moderate" effect (f = 0. 25). , The predictive specimen size after exclusion criteria was determined to be at least 128 people. Participants were given a part of the course and a small bonus of up to 9. 50 Canadian dollars in response to the final revenue. The session was held in space, including 15 test rooms. The task was completed on a computer with a mouse and keyboard. E-Prime ® 2. 0 Professional software was used to record the stimulus and record.
This experiment is applied to experiment 1A and 1b. The stimulus is presented on the black background, three (2)
A circle that makes up a reel pattern is displayed at the top of the screen. The position was surrounded by a gray frame. The reel pattern was presented in the same method as experimental 1A and 1b. A 1. 5-inch white circle just below the intermediate reel stimulus has served as a reaction key. The reaction key was also surrounded by a gray frame, with the word "Click Me!"
Ethics
All procedures conducted in the research of human participation have obtained the approval of the Alberta University Research Ethics Committee (Protocol ProLOL PROL PROLOL PROL PROLOL PROLOL PROLOL PROLOL PROL PROLOL PROLOL PROLOL PROLOL PRO L-Council Policy Statement on The Ethical Conduct of Research Involving Humans).
procedure
Participants read the information provision and consent form. Later, he signed the participation consent. Participants were assigned to individual laboratory and instructed to start. A simple instruction was displayed on the screen for at least one minute after being prompted to enter age and gender on the computer. The instructions told the participants to make as much money as possible. He was also told that he could interrupt the play and collect money.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups and then to one of two treatments. The grouping was the same as in Experiments 1a and 1b, with participants in the S D group seeing only red circles in the reel pattern, and participants in the S D & amp; S ∆ group seeing both red and blue circles, but only red circles signifying wins. Also, as in Experiments 1a and 1b, near misses or far misses were treated as extinctions instead of wins.
The pre-exposure phase of Experiment 2 was similar to the third component of the pre-exposure phase of Experiment 1. The first 15 trials were structured so that the 1st, 5th, and 11th were wins. This was to prevent participants from experiencing early losing streaks that could occur with the RR schedule, which could result in negative monetary scores. The remaining 285 trials were played according to the RR5 schedule, with all outcomes being equally probable every 15 trials. Participants started with $0. 50, and their score was always displayed at the bottom of the screen. Each press of the response key cost participants $0. 05, which was immediately deducted from their score. A win was awarded $0. 40 and displayed in large yellow letters as "Win! +40¢".
After 300 trials, the treatment phase began, during which the play of the response key was extinguished and clicks were rewarded with $0. 05, but clicking did not result in a win. Participants in the near-miss treatment had wins replaced with near-misses, and participants in the far-miss treatment had wins replaced with far-misses. Unlike some other extinction-based studies (Kassinove and Schare 2001; MacLin et al. 2007), participants were not presented with any cues to signal this change and were not informed that such a change was occurring. Participants were allowed to continue playing until 50 min had elapsed. When participants were ready to leave, they were paid according to their final score and given a debriefing form about the experiment.
Results and Discussion
Statistical analyses were performed only on participants who were observed to be sufficiently reinforced on the task, defined as completing at least 300 trials. This criterion was set because 300 trials was the minimum number of trials that had to be completed before entering the extinction phase. Of the total sample, 178 participants (60%) continued through to the extinction phase. In the SD group (n = 91), 28 women and 16 men were assigned to the near-miss group, and 36 women and 11 men were assigned to the farm-miss group. In the SD& S∆ group (n = 87), 26 women and 19 men were assigned to the near-miss group, and 30 women and 12 men were assigned to the farm-miss group. The remaining 118 participants (40%) did not reach the extinction phase of the experiment; 48% were in the SD group and 52% were in the SD& S∆ group. Analyses were performed on the cumulative number of responses made during extinction using R 3. 5. 0 (R Core Team 2018) as in Experiment 1. Statistical and visual inspection of the data revealed significant positive skewness across all groups and treatments, G = 2. 59 (see Joanes and Gill 1998 for details of skewness measures), and we performed a decimal log transformation to make the data symmetric. We set G = 0. 82 and performed parametric analyses using 2 × 2 factorial ANOVAs. Effect size estimates were obtained by Cohen's F ( f ) for each main effect and interaction term. Corresponding JZS Bayes factors showing the relative odds of each term with respect to the intercept of the model are also reported (Morey and Rouder 2011, 2015). Figure 3 plots the cumulative number of responses for each group in Experiment 2 in untransformed units using notched boxplots. There were no significant main effects of miss type (near miss vs. far miss), F (1, 174) = 2. 12, p = 0. 148, f = 0. 11, BF = 0. 42, and stimulation group (S D vs. S D & amp; S ∆ ), F (1, 174) = 0. 01, p = 0. 92, f = 0. 01, BF = 0. 16. A non-significant interaction between miss type and stimulation group was also obtained, F (1, 174) = 1. 49, p = 0. 22, f = 0. 09, BF = 0. 03.
Results from Experiment 2. Plots are notched boxplots illustrating the cumulative responses during extinction for the S D and S D & amp; S ∆ groups across near-miss and far-miss treatments. Whiskers follow the 1. 5×IQR rule. Hollow circles indicate data points that fall off the ends of the whiskers.
The results of Experiment 2 confirm the findings of Experiment 1, as well as those of other extinction studies that failed to find reinforcing effects of near-miss stimuli in human subjects. Indeed, Experiments 1 and 2 only showed no evidence of a conditioned reinforcement effect. However, if it were shown that no effect similar to the near-miss effect could be obtained despite the high probability of the presence of a conditioned reinforcer, it would be evidence that the persistence of the conditioned reinforcer is not enhanced. In Experiment 3, we exploited the fact that a discriminative stimulus (i. e., a stimulus that triggers the occurrence of a behavioral outcome) often also acquires the function of a subject-conditioned stimulus (CS+) due to its contingent relationship with an unconditioned reinforcer (i. e., the unconditioned stimulus). For example, a food-predictive stimulus often evokes a consummatory response in animals. In pigeons, this usually takes the form of pecking at the food-predictive stimulus with an open beak (Schwartz and Gamzu 1977). If we assume that respondent conditioning is the process by which a neutral stimulus acquires a conditioned reinforcing function (this remains the most widely supported view and forms the basis of the logic of extinction-based persistence tests; Williams 1994), evidence that a conditioned response occurs with a hypothetical conditioned reinforcing stimulus is evidence that a conditioned response occurs with that conditioned reinforcing stimulus.
Experiment 3
Experimental Method
Subjects and Apparatus
Eight homing pigeons not used in Experiments 1a and 1b were randomly selected. The experimental apparatus was the same as that used in Experiments 1a and 1b.
Ethics Statement
All procedures for animal care and use conformed to the ethical standards of the University of Alberta, Canadian Council on Animal Care, and were approved by the Biosciences Animal Care and Use Committee (protocol AUP00002018).
Experimental Procedure
As in experiment 1, a repeated measures design with two treatments was used, with the order of treatments randomly determined by Latin squares (i. e., subject × treatment). Subjects began the treatment phase following a three-component pre-exposure phase. In all phases, sessions lasted for 90 min or 200 food reinforcements, whichever occurred first. If a bird had earned all 200 reinforcements before 90 min had elapsed, it remained in the box with the inoperable blank screen. To reduce nonsystematic variability, only one handler conducted the experimental sessions during the treatment phase.
The first component of the pre-exposure phase was the same as the autoshaping procedure in experiment 1a. In the next component, pigeons were reinforced for responding to a white pecking circle in the lower hole of the barrier on a one-session FR1 schedule. After a single response, the circle turned black and there was a 2400 ms interval before reinforcement. In the third component, the pigeons were transferred to a pure RR2 schedule, where the number of pokes was determined randomly according to a probability of 0. 5 that any response would lead to food reinforcement. After completion of the RR2 schedule, a single S D or S∆ feedback stimulus (representing reinforcement and non-reinforcement, respectively) was presented for 2400 ms in the central hole of the top three circles of the plastic barrier. After the S D presentation, the bird was given 1 s to access the food, during which the S D remained presented (delay conditioning). The S D then disappeared at the same time as the white response circle reappeared. The S ∆ was terminated and the white response circle reappeared immediately after the non-forced trial in which the S ∆ was presented.
The stimulus of SD and S ∆ is either a yellow circle intersects a thin black horizontal line, or a light blue circle crosses a thin black vertical line. Half of the birds were chosen unreasonably, received yellow SD and blue S ∆, and the other half received blue SD and yellow S ∆. In order to evaluate the conditional reactions triggered by SD, a peecked reaction to SD and S -∆ stimulation was recorded in milliseconds.
After five sessions on the RR2 schedule, the subjects entered the three session treatment stage, and the reaction to the white pecking circle was extinct. The unconditional enhancement was removed, and the distortion of the feedback was corrected. In SD 80 % treatment, the subject received 80 % of SD feedback stimuli and 20 % S∆ feedback stimuli. In the SD 20 % process, the subject received the SD feedback stimulation of 20 % and the S∆ feedback stimulation of 80 %. After the first extinction, the subject returned to the stage before the exposure, and then completed the other treatment conditions.
Results and consideration
Here, SD and S ∆ represent the cumulative amount of reactions performed during each stimulus in all sessions before the exposure. This was tested for the prediction that there was no discrimination (i = 0. 5). The data is folded in both pr e-training blocks because there is no reason to expect the order of the order. The first block of advance exposure and the indicator of the second block support this guess. The average identification index in the first block was M = 0. 985, 95% CI [0. 973, 0. 997], and the average identification index for the second block was m = 0. 998, 95% CI [0. 996, 1. 001]. In all exposed sessions, T (7) = 187. 73, P, which had extreme effects in the S-D reaction to S∆, compared to S∆'s reaction to S∆.
& gt; 150). This indicates that the existence of S∆ to S∆ had a strong CS+function for the pecking, which is generally a strong and important feature of condition enhancement stimulation. Gollub 1977). This has never been trained to respond to this place, no prior experience of these stimuli, and this irritation did not affect the order or timing of the event. 。
Statistical analysis of the cumulative number of responses during extinction was performed in the same way as in Experiment 1. The results (Figure 4) showed no significant effect and did not support differences between the extinction treatments tested, t (7) = 0. 02, p = 0. 985, 95% CI [- 162. 38, 165. 13], d = 0. 01, BF = 0. 34, despite strong evidence that the S D feedback stimulus functioned as a conditioned stimulus during the preexposure phase. This strongly suggests that whatever reinforcing function the slot machine reels may have, it is unrelated to prolonged play during the extinction period (i. e., the period of consistent losses) and therefore is unlikely to be a reliable reinforcer.
Results from Experiment 3. The leftmost plot shows the average cumulative responses during extinction for the S D 80% and S D 20% treatments. The center plot shows the mean difference between these treatments. All error bars show 95% confidence intervals. The rightmost plot shows the average cumulative responses across the three extinction trials. Circles and diamonds represent the extinction treatments with S D 80% and S D 20%, respectively.
General considerations
Currently, some of the most powerful experimental evidence that supports the Nearmiss effect is obtained from a series of research that adopts extinctio n-based sustainable tasks (COTE and other 2003; Kassinove and School 2001). In this study, it is not possible to reproduce the positive evidence of the nea r-miss effect of gambling, but instead demonstrates the reliable enhanced effect of the nea r-miss stimulus in extinct, selectio n-based, or observation reactions. As a result of not being able to quote other experimental research (Fortes et al. 2017; GHEZZI et AL. 2006; Maclin et al. 2007; Peters et al. 2010; REID 1986; Stagner et Al. 2015; Strickland and Grote 1967; Witts et al. 2015). Furthermore, in experimental 3 in this research, using extinctio n-based treatments when evaluating the functions of estimated conditioned enhancers is at best not reliability, and in the worst case. It was shown that there was no. This raises important points about the essence of reinforcement effects. Even if the accidental slot machine occurs to the reel with a certain condition enhancement function, there is no guarantee that the functions that occur as the gambling reaction itself will work. In particular, there is no guarantee that gambling persistence will be strengthened. Rather, the enhancement generated on the reel may only help to enhance other types of reactions, such as the first machine selection, bet, or near miss. Currently, some of the most influential experimental evidence that supports the nea r-miss effects is obtained from a series of research that adopts extinctio n-based sustainable tasks (COTE and 2003; Kassinove and School 2001). In this study, it is not possible to reproduce the positive evidence of the nea r-miss effect of gambling, but instead demonstrates the reliable enhanced effect of the nea r-miss stimulus in extinct, selectio n-based, or observation reactions. As a result of not being able to quote other experimental research (Fortes et al. 2017; GHEZZI et AL. 2006; Maclin et al. 2007; Peters et al. 2010; REID 1986; Stagner et Al. 2015; Strickland and Grote 1967; Witts et al. 2015). Furthermore, in experimental 3 in this research, using extinctio n-based treatments when evaluating the functions of estimated conditioned enhancers is at best not reliability, and in the worst case. It was shown that there was no. This raises important points about the essence of reinforcement effects. Even if the accidental slot machine occurs to the reel with a certain condition enhancement function, there is no guarantee that the functions that occur as the gambling reaction itself will work. In particular, there is no guarantee that gambling persistence will be strengthened. Rather, the enhancement generated on the reel may only help to enhance other types of reactions, such as the first machine selection, bet, or near miss. Currently, some of the most powerful experimental evidence that supports the Nearmiss effect is obtained from a series of research that adopts extinctio n-based sustainable tasks (COTE and other 2003; Kassinove and School 2001). In this study, it is not possible to reproduce the positive evidence of the nea r-miss effect of gambling, but instead demonstrates the reliable enhanced effect of the nea r-miss stimulus in extinct, selectio n-based, or observation reactions. As a result of not being able to quote other experimental research (Fortes et al. 2017; GHEZZI et AL. 2006; Maclin et al. 2007; Peters et al. 2010; REID 1986; Stagner et Al. 2015; Strickland and Grote 1967; Witts et al. 2015). Furthermore, in experimental 3 in this research, using extinctio n-based treatments when evaluating the functions of estimated conditioned enhancers is at best not reliability, and in the worst case. It was shown that there was no. This raises important points about the essence of reinforcement effects. Even if the accidental slot machine occurs to the reel with a certain condition enhancement function, there is no guarantee that the functions that occur as the gambling reaction itself will work. In particular, there is no guarantee that gambling persistence will be strengthened. Rather, the enhancement generated on the reel may only help to enhance other types of reactions, such as the first machine selection, bet, or near miss.
What is considered as the limit of this study is that in all three experiments, the accidental occurrence, which was valid before exposure, produced only net increase. However, this was done to maximize the possibility of creating a conditional enhancement effect due to near miss. Despite this network, about 40 % of the participants in experimental 2 chose to cash out from the experiment before the disappearance was sometimes reached, sometimes the maximum dividend. This seems to be a large percentage, but in a similar study (for example, Kassinove and School 2001), the number of trials required before the participants cash out, and the value of the challenges enhanced is complicated. It is worth pointing out that it is. In contrast, in this study, the participants were able to cash out at any time. Due to such differences, it cannot be determined that 40 % of the withdrawal rate of 40 % is high or low in this kind of study, but this is a study of undergraduate groups that may be weak in money. It may be the problem of that.
The second potential limit is that, like the gambling of a real slot machine, it did not need to play with the risk of losing money. For ethical reasons, he could not request his own funds, but he was at risk of losing the money he had already earned by continuing to play during the extinction. In fact, both the nea r-miss conditions and the furmith conditions, many participants played more than 100 times even after the disappearing stage was started. This consists of an increase in sustainability found after exposure to intermittent enhancement schedules, known as a partial enhancement effect (Nevin 1988), which loses the money earned earlier. Furthermore, to continue playing, time and energy investments were needed. What is considered as the limit of this study is that in all three experiments, the accidental occurrence, which was valid before exposure, produced only net. However, this was done to maximize the possibility of creating a conditional enhancement effect due to near miss. Despite this network, about 40 % of the participants in experimental 2 chose to cash out from the experiment before the disappearance was sometimes reached, sometimes the maximum dividend. This seems to be a large percentage, but in a similar study (for example, Kassinove and School 2001), the number of trials required before the participants cash out, and the value of the challenges enhanced is complicated. It is worth pointing out that it is. In contrast, in this study, the participants were able to cash out at any time. Due to such differences, it cannot be determined that 40 % of the withdrawal rate of 40 % is high or low in this kind of study, but this is a study of undergraduate groups that may be weak in money. It may be the problem of that.
The second potential limit is that, like the gambling of a real slot machine, it did not need to play with the risk of losing money. For ethical reasons, he could not request his own funds, but he was at risk of losing the money he had already earned by continuing to play during the extinction. In fact, both the nea r-miss conditions and the furmith conditions, many participants played more than 100 times even after the disappearing stage was started. This consists of an increase in sustainability found after exposure to intermittent enhancement schedules, known as a partial enhancement effect (Nevin 1988), which loses the money earned earlier. Furthermore, to continue playing, time and energy investments were needed. What is considered as the limit of this study is that in all three experiments, the accidental occurrence, which was valid before exposure, produced only net increase. However, this was done to maximize the possibility of creating a conditional enhancement effect due to near miss. Despite this network, about 40 % of the participants in experimental 2 chose to cash out from the experiment before the disappearance was sometimes reached, sometimes the maximum dividend. This seems to be a large percentage, but in a similar study (for example, Kassinove and School 2001), the number of trials required before the participants cash out, and the value of the challenges enhanced is complicated. It is worth pointing out that it is. In contrast, in this study, the participants were able to cash out at any time. Due to such differences, it cannot be determined that 40 % of the withdrawal rate of 40 % is high or low in this kind of study, but this is a study of undergraduate groups that may be weak in money. It may be the problem of that.
The second potential limit is that, like the gambling of a real slot machine, it did not need to play with the risk of losing money. For ethical reasons, he could not request his own funds, but he was at risk of losing the money he had already earned by continuing to play during the extinction. In fact, both the nea r-miss conditions and the furmith conditions, many participants played more than 100 times even after the disappearing stage was started. This consists of an increase in sustainability found after exposure to intermittent enhancement schedules, known as a partial enhancement effect (Nevin 1988), which loses the money earned earlier. Furthermore, to continue playing, time and energy investments were needed.
The third limit is that the stimulation used is simple. Slot machines generally incorporate reel rotation and all kinds of stimuli, which are quite complicated. In this experiment, we only used a very basic shape, pattern, and results. If nea r-miss has a meaningful effect on gambling sustainability, its effect should not depend on conventional gambling stimuli. In order to reduce no n-systematic variations, this study used basic neutral stimuli and patterns that restrict existing biases and simplify the learning of accident.
The fourth limit is that a specific boundary condition may be required to create a hiyari hat effect. In other words, our research may not include the specific variables necessary for creating a hiyari hat effect. Although this possibility is not denied, the most powerful positive evidence of the nea r-miss effect on gambling sustainability (Cote et al. 2003; Kassinove and School 2001) has no specification. As a result, there was no pr e-experimental reason to think that it would be necessary to operate other than near miss to see the impact on action. Furthermore, as a result of investigating the literature, it was not possible to consistently identify conditions that could be predicted whether a nea r-miss effect would appear.
One of the potential boundary conditions may be a group of participants. For example, it is possible that the nea r-miss stimulus increases the persistence only for gamblers, and not with no n-gamblers. For example, there is a study that a nea r-miss stimulus caused a physiological or nervous reaction in a problem gambler, but did not occur with a no n-problem gambler (Dymond et al. 2014; Habib and Dixon 2010). However, these studies do not show any behavioral effects on gambling sustainment, and it is not possible to know whether the reaction to the hiyari hat stimulus is part of the gambling problem or the result. Furthermore, the most frequently quoted evidence of the hiyari hat effect is from research on no n-problem gamblers. Therefore, the challenge of future research is to indicate that a nea r-miss event based on neutral stimuli (that is, stimuli that has not already been conditioned by previous gambling experience) will cause the gamblers to the gamblers. See.
Finally, there may be factors external to the experiment that undermine the extinction procedure - especially in humans. Witts et al. (2015) comment that the need to use the toilet or simply having access to a more reinforcing activity outside the experiment may create competing contingencies that influence participants' exit. The results of Experiment 2 support this: the proportion of participants who cashed out before extinction (i. e. before obtaining the maximum reward) suggests that the amount they had earned was not sufficiently reinforcing to keep many participants engaged in the task. Providing a larger monetary incentive could mitigate this, but it is unclear to what extent this would be necessary. This illustrates one of the advantages of using animal models: since food is a strong reinforcer, we have more control over the subjects' behavior. Furthermore, the motivational manipulation can be adjusted, and other extraneous variables (e. g., learning history) are often easier to control.
In recent years, near-miss research has attracted attention. However, most of this work has investigated measures other than the persistence of behavior, such as physiological responses, response latencies, and questionnaire data. Although these effects are speculated to be consistent with prolonging slot machine play, few studies have clearly demonstrated reinforcing effects on persistence. If near misses truly prolong gambling behavior, why are there not numerous experimental studies that have conclusively and consistently demonstrated this effect? Decades after B. F. Skinner first acknowledged the possibility that near misses could reinforce gambling responses, the lack of an experimental paradigm that can consistently demonstrate this effect on gambling behavior is deeply suggestive.
Given that the nea r-miss effect on gambling durability is based on the initial illegal conditional enhancement description (Fantino 1977; Skinner 1953), the nea r-miss research may have been misplaced from the beginning. In addition, some studies, including this study, are questioning the belief that near miss prolongs gambling. Even though the nea r-miss leads to prolonged gambling, the effect seems to be limited or specific (Witts et al.), But 66 years after B. F. Skinner first proposed this idea. The belief in strengthening gambling will be persistent. Our research questions the fundamental premise that the condition of the nea r-miss stimulus should increase the durability of gambling behavior during the disappearance.
References
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